Preferred: Invertebrates, 3rd ed., Brusca & Brusca (2016). Information; be ready to observe, draw, and write; and also to integrate and synthesize information.
Ne of the first evolutionary trees of life conceived from a Darwinian (genealogical) perspective was published by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 (Figure 1.1). Haeckel’s famous tree of life began a tradition of depicting phylogenetic hypotheses as branching diagrams, or trees, a tradition that has persisted since that time. We discuss various ways in which these trees are developed in Chapter 2. Since Haeckel’s day, many names have been coined for the larger branches that sprout from these trees. We will not burden you with all of these names, but a few of them need to be defined here, before we launch into our study of the invertebrates. Some of these names refer to groups of organisms that are probably natural phylogenetic groups (i.e., groups that include an ancestor and all of its descendants), such as Metazoa(the animal kingdom).
Other names refer to unnatural, or composite, groupings of organisms, such as “microbes” (i.e., any organism that is microscopic in size, such as bacteria, most protists, and unicellular fungi) and “protozoa” (a loose assemblage of primarily unicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes). The discovery that organisms with a cell nucleus constitute a natural group divided the living world neatly into two categories, the prokaryotes(those organisms lacking membrane-enclosed organelles and a nucleus, and without linear chromosomes), and the eukaryotes(those organisms that do possess membranebound organelles and a nucleus, and linear chromosomes). Investigations by Carl Woese and others, beginning in the 1970s, led to the discovery that the prokaryotes actually comprise two distinct groups, called Eubacteriaand Archaea(= Archaebacteria), both quite distinct from eukaryotes (Box 1A).
Eubacteria corre- Introduction For a gentleman should know something of invertebrate zoology, call it culture or what you will, just as he ought to know something about painting and music and the weeds in his garden. Martin Wells, Lower Animals, 1968 spond more or less to our traditional understanding of bacteria. Archaea strongly resemble Eubacteria, but they have genetic and metabolic characteristics that make them unique. For example, Archaea differ from both Eubacteria and Eukaryota in the composition of their ribosomes, in the construction of their cell walls, and in the kinds of lipids in their cell membranes.
Some Eubacteria conduct chlorophyll-based photosynthesis, a trait that is never present in Archaea. Not surprisingly, due to their great age,.the genetic differences among prokaryotes are much greater than those seen among eukaryotes, even though these differences do not typically reveal themselves in gross anatomy. Current thinking favors the view that prokaryotes ruled Earth for at least 2 billion years before the modern eukaryotic cell appeared in the fossil record. In fact, it seems likely that a significant portion of Earth’s biodiversity, at the level of both genes and species, resides in the “invisible” prokaryotic world. About 4,0 species of prokaryotes have been described, but there are an estimated 1 to 3 million undescribed species living on Earth today.
Evolutionary change in the prokaryotes gave rise to metabolic diversity and the evolutionary capacity to explore and colonize every conceivable environment on Earth. Many Archaea live in extreme environments, and this pattern is often interpreted as a refugial lifestyle—in other words, these creatures tend to live in places where they have been able to survive without confronting 2CHAPTER ONE.The date of the first appearance of life on Earth remains debatable.
The oldest evidence consists of 3.8-billion-year-old trace fossils from Australia, but these fossils have recently been challenged, and opinion is now split on whether they are traces of early bacteria or simply mineral deposits. Uncontestable fossils occur in rocks 2 billion years old, but these fossils already include multicellular algae, suggesting that life must have evolved well before then. THE PROKARYOTES (the “domains” Eubacteria and Archaea)a Kingdom Eubacteria (Bacteria) The “true” bacteria, including Cyanobacteria (or blue–green algae) and spirochetes.
Never with membrane-enclosed organelles or nuclei, or a cytoskeleton; none are methanogens; some use chlorophyll-based photosynthesis; with peptidoglycan in cell wall; with a single known RNA polymerase. Kingdom Archaea (Archaebacteria) Anaerobic or aerobic, largely methane-producing microorganisms.
Never with membrane-enclosed organelles or nuclei, or a cytoskeleton; none use chlorophyll-based photosynthesis; without peptidoglycan in cell wall; with several RNA polymerases. THE EUKARYOTES (the “domain” Eukaryota, or Eukarya) Cells with a variety of membrane-enclosed organelles (e.g., mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes) and with a membraneenclosed nucleus. Cells gain structural support from an internal network of fibrous proteins called a cytoskeleton. Kingdom Fungi The fungi.
Probably a monophyletic group that includes molds, mushrooms, yeasts, and others. Saprobic, heterotrophic, multicellular organisms. The earliest fossil records of fungi are from the Middle Ordovician, about 460 mya.
The 72,0 described species are thought to represent only 5–10 percent of the actual diversity. Kingdom Plantae (= Metaphyta) The multicellular plants. Photosynthetic, autotrophic, multicellular organisms that develop through embryonic tissue layering. Includes some groups of algae, the bryophytes and their kin, and the vascular plants (about 240,0 of which are flowering plants).
The described species are thought to represent about half of Earth’s actual plant diversity. Kingdom Protista Eukaryotic single-celled microorganisms and certain algae. A polyphyletic grouping of perhaps 18 phyla, including euglenids, green algae, diatoms and some other brown algae, ciliates, dinoflagellates, foraminiferans, amoebae, and others.
Many workers feel that this group should be split into several separate kingdoms to better reflect the phylogenetic lineages of its members. The 80,0 described species probably represent about 10 percent of the actual protist diversity on Earth today.
Kingdom Animalia (= Metazoa) The multicellular animals. A monophyletic taxon, containing 34 phyla of ingestive, heterotrophic, multicellular organisms.
About 1.3 million living species have been described; estimates of the number of undescribed species range from lows of 10–30 million to highs of 100–200 million. APortions of the old “Kingdom Monera” are now included in the Eubacteria and the Archaea. Viruses (about 5,0 described “species”) and subviral organisms (viroids and prions) are not included in this classification.
BOX 1AThe Six Kingdoms of Life UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS. Competition with more highly derived life forms. Many of these “extremophiles” are anaerobic chemoautotrophs, and they have been found in a variety of habitats, such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents, benthic marine cold seeps, hot springs, saline lakes, sewage treatment ponds, certain sediments of natural waters, and the guts of humans and other animals.
One of the most astonishing discoveries of the 1980s was that extremophile Archaea (and some fungi) are widespread in the deep rocks of Earth’s crust. Since then, a community of hydrogen-eating Archaea has been found living in a geothermal hot spring in Idaho, 600 feet beneath Earth’s surface, relying on neither sunshine nor organic carbon. Other Archaea have been found at depths as great as 2.8 km, living in igneous rocks with temperatures as high as 75°C. Extremophiles include halophiles(which grow in the presence of high salt concentrations), thermophilesand psychrophiles(which live at very high or very low temperatures), acidiphilesand alkaliphiles (which are optimally adapted to acidic or basic pH values), and barophiles(which grow best under pres- sure).Molecular phylogenetic studies now suggest that some of these extremophiles, particularly the thermophiles, lie close to the “universal ancestor” of all life on Earth.
It has recently been suggested that the three main divisions of life (Eubacteria, Archaea, Eukaryota) should be recognized at a new taxonomic level, called domains. However, fundamental questions remain about these three “domains,” including how many natural groups (kingdoms) exist in each domain, whether the domains themselves represent natural (= monophyletic) groups, and what the phylogenetic relationships are among these domains and the kingdoms they contain. Current evidence suggests that eukaryotes are a natural group, defined by the unique trait of a nucleus and linear chromosomes, whereas Eubacteria and Archaea may not be natural groups. Courses and texts on invertebrates often include discussions of two eukaryotic kingdoms, the Animalia (= Metazoa) and certain “animal-like” (i.e., heterotrophic) protist phyla loosely referred to as “protozoa.” Following this tradition, we treat 34 phyla of Metazoa and 18 phyla of protists (many of which have traditionally been viewed as “protozoa”) in this text. The vast majority of kinds (species) of living organisms that have been described are animals. The kingdom Animalia,or Metazoa,is usually defined as the multicellular, ingestive, heterotrophic†eukaryotes.
However, its members possess other unique attributes as well, such as an acetylcholine/cholinesterase-based nervous system, special types of cell–cell junctions, and a unique family of connective tissue proteins called collagens. Over a million species of living animals have been described, but estimates of how many living species remain to be discovered and described range from lows of 10–30 million to highs of 100–200 million.‡Among the Metazoa are some species that possess a backbone (or vertebral column), but most do not. Those that possess a backbone constitute the subphylum Vertebrata of the phylum Chordata, and account for less than 5 percent (about 46,670 species) of all described animals. Those INTRODUCTION 3 Figure 1.1Haeckel’s Tree of Life (1866).One of the most striking examples of a thermophile is Pyrolobus fumarii, a chemolithotrophic archaean that lives in oceanic hydrothermal vents at temperatures of 90°–113°C.
(Chemolithotrophs are organisms that use inorganic compounds as energy sources.) On the other hand, Polaromonas vacuolatagrows optimally at 4°C. Picrophilus oshimaeis an acidiphile whose growth optimum is pH 0.7 (P. Oshimaeis also a thermophile, preferring temperatures of 60°C). The alkaliphile Natronobacterium gregoryilives in soda lakes where the pH can rise as high as 12. Halophilic microorganisms abound in hypersaline lakes such as the Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake, and solar salt evaporation ponds. Such lakes are often colored red by dense microbial communities (e.g., Halobacterium).
Halobacterium salinarumlives in the salt pans of San Francisco Bay and colors them red. Barophiles have been found living at all depths in the sea, and one unnamed species from the Mariana Trench has been shown to require at least 500 atmospheres of pressure in order to grow. †Heterotrophic organisms are those that consume other organisms or organic materials as food. That do not possess a backbone (the remainder of the phylum Chordata, plus 3 additional animal phyla) constitute the invertebrates. Thus we can see that the division of animals into invertebrates and vertebrates is based more on tradition and convenience, reflecting a dichotomy of zoologists’ interests, than it is on the recognition of natural biological groupings. About 10,0 to 13,0 new species are named and described by biologists each year, most of them invertebrates. Where Did Invertebrates Come From?
The incredible array of extant (= living) invertebrates is the outcome of billions of years of evolution on Earth. Indirect evidence of prokaryotic organisms has been found in some of the oldest sediments on the planet, suggesting that life first appeared in Earth’s seas almost as soon as the planet cooled enough for it to exist.§Aremarkable level of metabolic sophistication had been achieved by the end of the Archean eon, about 2.5 billion years ago. Hydrocarbon biomarkers suggest that the first eukaryotic cells might have appeared 2.7 billion years ago. However, we know very few details about the origin or early evolution of the eukaryotes.
Even though the eukaryotic condition appeared early in Earth’s history, it probably took a few hundred million more years for evolution to invent multicellular organisms. Molecular clock data (tenuous as they are) suggest that the last common ancestor of plants and animals existed about 1.6 billion years ago—long after the initial appearance of eukaryotes and long before a de- finitive fossil record of metazoans, but in line with trace fossil evidence. The fossil record tells us that metazoan life had its origin in the Proterozoic eon, at least 600 million years ago, although trace fossils suggest that the earliest animals might have originated more than 1.2 billion years ago.
The ancestors of both plants and animals were almost certainly protists, suggesting that the phenomenon of multicellularity arose independently in the Metazoa and Metaphyta. Indeed, genetic and developmental data suggest that the basic mechanisms of pattern formation and cell–cell communication during development were independently derived in animals and in plants. In animals, segmental identity is established by the spatially specific transcriptional activation of an overlapping series of master regulatory genes, the homeobox (Hox) genes.
The master regulatory genes of plants are not members of the homeobox gene family, but belong to the MADS box family of transcription factor genes. There is no evidence that the animal homeobox and MADS box transcription factor genes are homologous. Although the fossil record is rich with the history of many early animal lineages, many others have left very few fossils. Many were very small, some were soft-bodied and did not fossilize well, and others lived where conditions were not suitable for the formation of fossils. Therefore, we can only speculate about the abundance of members of most animal groups in times past. However, groups such as the echinoderms (sea stars, urchins), molluscs (clams, snails), arthropods (crustaceans, insects), corals, ectoprocts, brachiopods, and vertebrates have left rich fossil records. In fact, for some groups (e.g., echinoderms, brachiopods, ectoprocts, molluscs), the number of extinct species known from fossils exceeds the number of known living forms.
Representatives of nearly all of the extant animal phyla were present early in the Paleozoic era, more than 500 million years ago (mya). Life on land, however, did not appear until fairly recently, by geological standards, and terrestrial radiations began only about 470 mya. Apparently it was more challenging for life to invade land than to first evolve on Earth! The following account briefly summarizes the early history of life and the rise of the invertebrates. The Dawn of Life It used to be thought that the Proterozoic was a time of only a few simple kinds of life; hence the name. However, discoveries over the past 20 years have shown that life on Earth began early and had a very long history throughout the Proterozoic.
It is estimated that Earth is about 4.6 billion years old, although the oldest rocks found are only about 3.8 billion years old. The oldest evidence of possible life on Earth consists of 3.8-billion-year-old, debated, biogenic traces suspected to represent anaerobic sulfate-reducing prokaryotes and (Parte 1 de 10).
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Shuster and also get your new life! Invertebrates presents a modern survey of the 34 animal phyla (plus the Protista) and serves as both a college course text and a reference on invertebrate biology. Sales Rank: #32435 in Books.
Published on: 2016-01-19. Original language: English. Dimensions: 11.50' h x 8.75' w x 1.50' l,.0 pounds. Binding: Hardcover. 1104 pages About the Author Richard C. Brusca is Director of Conservation and Research at the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, and also holds adjunct research positions at the University of Arizona and CIAD (Centro de Investigacion en Alimentacion y Desarrollo), Mexico. He earned a B.S.
At California State Polytechnic University, an M.Sc. At California State University (Los Angeles), and a Ph.D. At the University of Arizona. The author of over 100 research publications, including six books, Dr. Brusca is a widely recognized invertebrate zoologist, marine biologist, and Sea of Cortez and Sonoran Desert naturalist. He is a Fellow in both the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the Linnean Society (London). Brusca has been the recipient of research grants from numerous organizations, including the National Science Foundation, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the National Geographic Society.
Most helpful customer reviews 10 of 11 people found the following review helpful. 5 solid stars for what I believe is the gold standard of textbooks in this field of study By ARH I have been teaching invertebrate zoology for over 20 years. At first I used the text by Kozloff to support my course, then when he retired I used the book by Barnes, et al. For many years. When that book slipped out of date I tried the text by Pechenik.
Pechenik's book is very good, but his overall approach and treatment of taxa does not match the way I approach invertebrates as well as this edition of Brusca's book. BTW, through all my years of full-time teaching (starting in 1992) I consistently had a copy of the most recent text by Brusca on my shelf as a reference book, but this edition, IMO, finally nailed it as a teaching text. Editions 1 and 2 were probably better suited to advanced undergraduate students or graduate students than students taking their first serious look at invertebrates. This text, now co-authored by Richard Brusca, Wendy Moore, and Stephen Shuster, is much more readable and student friendly than past editions.
In fact it's downright fantastic. I've been reviewing and reading it since my review copy arrived about a week and a half ago. The overall approach is comparative anatomy. This matches the way I prefer to teach my course. Before I decided whether to adopt this textbook I took a careful look at its treatment of several taxa that have been problematic in the past.e.g., protozoans, Xenocoelomorpha, Myxozoa, Microsporidia, Sipincula, Echiura, and Chaetognatha. In every case this book's treatment of these and all taxa I have reviewed includes up-to-date systematics.
I am also pleased to see the updated treatment and taxonomy of all eukarya in Chapter 3. This treatment provides an overview of the recently proposed five major groupings of Eukarya: Amoebozoa, Chromavleolata, Rhizaria, Excavata, and Opisthokonta (which includes all animals, fungi, vascular plants, and related groups). This change eliminates the old Kingdom Protista, a sadly dysfunctional polyphyletic taxon.
This change also makes this book particularly useful in providing an overview of the place of animals in the larger scope of the diversity of life on earth. I am impressed by the layout of each chapter. In most invert textbooks taxonomic information is relegated to the back of a chapter where students may or may not give it only a cursory glance. Brusca's team, however, puts the taxonomy right up front and does something particularly interesting and useful - they provide a brief history of the taxonomy of each major group. This provides an interesting context that allows students to see how science works as we uncover new observations and apply new methods, in this case improving the taxonomy and systematics of animal life. The chapter layout should also make this an easy text to teach from and learn from.
For example, here are the major sections in the chapter on Phylum Mollusca: 1) Taxonomic History and Classification, 2) Box info listing characteristics of the phylum, 3) Abbreviated classification of the phylum, 4) Synopsis Molluscan groups, 5) The molluscan body plan (body wall, mantle and mantle cavity, shell, torsion, locomotion, feeding, digestion, circulation and gas exchange, excretion and osmoregulation, nervous system, sense organs, reproduction, development) and 6) Evolution and Taxonomy including a cladogram for the phylum. The addition of color photos to supplement the excellent stipple line drawings is also a hallmark of this title. I can't wait to get started using this textbook in the classroom. Luckily I teach invert zoology in the Spring term! Lastly, I have written my own laboratory manual to support the hands-on portion of my course, and I am currently embarking on producing a 2nd edition of that set of exercises. I am so impressed by Brusca's new textbook that I plan develop my lab manual so that it employs the same taxonomy and approach as this book so that the lecture and lab materials for my course will be as seamless as possible. 5 solid stars for what I believe is the gold standard of textbooks in this field of study 0 of 4 people found the following review helpful.
Five Stars By Amazon Customer A little expensive. See all 2 customer reviews. Invertebrates, Third Edition, by Richard C. Brusca, Wendy Moore, Stephen M. Shuster PDF Invertebrates, Third Edition, by Richard C. Brusca, Wendy Moore, Stephen M. Shuster EPub Invertebrates, Third Edition, by Richard C.
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